Neuro Study Questions- Jake S.
stimulated ipsalaterally.
whereas the (DSCT / VSCT) informs the cerebellum about activity of muscles.
dorsal roots are cut.
1. Portions of the epithalamus are intimately related to the __________ system.
2. The habenula receives projections from the _______ and __________ regions via the ________ ____________. This info is relayed to the interpeduncular nucleus via what tract?
3. The habenular nuclei are intimately related to limbic system, and serve as a major ________ of
info from the limbic system to the ____________.
4. T or F The habenula has been implicated in vegetative and circadian functions, and is also
involved in reproduction and receiving olfactory input.
5. The main function of the pineal gland (epiphysis) is production of __________, which reduces
libido in males.
6. T or F Light reaches the pineal gland via a direct pathway from the retina.
7. T or F Tumors of the pineal gland of non-parenchymal tissue leads to excessive production of melatonin, whereas tumors of the pineal gland of pinealocytes leads to precocious puberty.
8. When pineal tumors get big enough, they may compress the _________ ________ leading to increased CSF pressure in lateral and third ventricles.
9. Another manifestation of pineal tumors is Parinaud’s syndrome, which is the inability to perform conjugate _________ ______.
10. Why do radiologists like the pineal gland?
11. The subthalamus contains a scattered group of cells in the _____ ________ and a compact ____________ ________, which is a crucial relay center of the basal ganglia.
12. Lesions of the subthalamic nucleus result in ipsalateral ______________.
13. There are ____ general types of functional groups of nuclei in the thalamus.
14. The external relay nuclei are in the ________ ________ tier of the thalamus, and they receive info from a primary sensory system and relay it to corresponding primary cortex.
15. T or F There are 4 external relay nuclei, namely the LGB, MGB, VA, and VL.
16. The LGB (or lateral geniculate nucleus) receives input from the ______ ______ and projects to area 17 (primary _______ cortex) via the ________________ tract.
17. The MGB receives input from the brachium of the _________ __________ and projects to areas 41 and 42 (primary _______ cortex).
18. The VPL (ventral posterolateral nuc) receives input from the ________ _______ and __________
tract and projects to the primary sensory cortex (areas __, __, and __).
19. The VPM receives input from the ____________ nucleus and projects to areas 1, 2, and 3 (the
primary ______ cortex). This info deals with face representation.
20. The internal relay nuclei are located ________ and ________. They receive info that has already
been processed by one brain system and relay it to cortical regions.
21. T or F There are 3 main internal relay nuclei, namely the ant. nucleus, VA, and VL nuclei.
22. The ant. nucleus receives info from the _______ system via the mammillothalamic tract and fornix and relays it to the ___________ gyrus (limbic cortex).
23. The VA nucleus receives input from the ______ _______ and relays to areas __ and __ of cortex.
24. The VL nucleus receives input from the deep __________ nuclei (mainly dentate) and relays it to the _______ cortex (areas 4 and 6).
25. The diffuse nuclei are located _______________, adjacent to 3rd ventricle and w/in internal medullary lamina. They receive afferents from ret. formation, spinal cord, and basal ganglia and relay it to widespread cortical areas.
26. The intralaminar nuclei (CM and Pf) receive input from the _______ _______ and ______ _____, and then project to widespread cortex.
27. The CM (centre median) interacts more w/ _______ and ______ areas, while the Pf (parafascicularis) has reciprocal __________ connections.
28. The reticular nucleus receives input form the _________ _________ and interacts with the temporal, frontal, and orbital cortical areas.
29. The midline nuclei receive connections from the ________ ________ as well as collaterals from the spino- and trigeminothalamic system, and project diffusely throughout cortex.
30. The fourth type of functional thalamic nuclei, the association nuclei, are located in the _________ tier of the thalamus, anteriorly and posteriorly. They receive little input from sensory systems, but act as _______ between cortical areas, internal brain systems, and b/w other thalamic nuclei and cortex.
31. The dorsomedial nucleus receives widespread _________ and _______ input, and has reciprocal connections with the prefrontal cortex (limbic association cortex).
32. The lateral dorsal nucleus gets input from the thalamus and relays to the __________ and _______ areas, and may be associated with the reward association function.
33. The lateral posterior nucleus gets input from the _________ __________ nuclei and the ________ cortex, two which it also sends projections (somatosensory association function).
34. The pulvinar nucleus receives info from the geniculates and ventral posterior nucleus, and has reciprocal connections w/ the ___________, _________, and __________ lobes.
35. External inputs are detected by receptors and the impulses generated are processed at lower levels to yield 1 type of info, then that info is processed again by another level, etc., in order to give increasingly sophisticated elements of information is called _______ processing.
36. When external inputs producing incoming info are routed to 2 or 3 diff. pathways, each processing the info in a unique manner to yield a synthesis of a variety of divergent elements, this is called _________ processing.
37. Info processed serially by the visual cortex (17) yields info on _________, ________, and _____.
38. Info processed serially by areas 18, 19, and temporal cortex give _________ discrimination.
39. At the same time, info is sent to the superior colliculus, where it is processed in parallel, yielding __________ ________ information.
40. T or F A single sensory input usually leads to multiple elements of info useful to diff. systems in maintaining their balance of function.
41. The most common problem that occurs to the thalamus arises from what?
42. The thalamic syndrome is marked by complete ___________ (when unilateral). With time, some pain and temp. sensation returns, so most stimuli of any kind are transmitted up as a pain sensation (similar to the decorticate condition where pain is the main sensation left intact).
43. In a frontal lobotomy, or leucotomy, the reciprocal connections b/w the _____ and ______ _____ are interrupted, which eliminates most sensations and impairs learning and memory.
44. Lesions of the CM and VL are used to alleviate _________ ______ in Parkinson’s, without damage to sensation.
45. The internal capsule receives multiple blood supplies depending on how close it is to the?
46. The loss of the thalamogeniculate blood supply can result in infarctions of the ________ and _______ thalamus, which can lead to a dysesthesia called _______ _____ where ordinary somatosensory stimuli are interpreted as painful.
47. Thalamus is closely associated w/ the ____ and ____ limb of the internal capsule, so infarcts of small blood vessels of the thalamus often involve the internal capsule.
48. Lateral striate (lenticulostriate) arteries supply the _______ aspect of the _____ limb of the internal capsule and genu.
49. Anterior choroidal artery supplies the _______ aspect of the _____ limb of the int. capsule.
50. Lenticulostriate and medial striate art’s supply the _____ limb of the int. capsule.
51. The long tract fibers are found w/in the _____ and _____ limb of the int. capsule, and are (lateral / medial) to the fibers that enter and exit the thalamus (thalamocortical fibers).
A few extra notes from diencephalon lecture:
-thalamus is the “gatekeeper” of info going to cortex (except for olfactory info); the thalamus helps the cortex implement its plans
-reticular nucleus of thalamus is a shell of cells that surrounds the thalamus; the external medullary
lamina sits b/w them; is inhibitory to info trying to get up to cortex (GABA)
-we don’t learn when we are sleeping
-diffuse nuclei are good for “waking up the cortex”, such as in fight or flight stimulus
-thalamogeniculate aa. go to lateral thalamus, thalamoperforating aa. go to medial thalamus; both of these from posterior cerebral art.
-most strokes occur in small art’s in internal capsule
-thalamic syndrome- usually following infarct, usually in posterior thalamus. symptoms are thalamic pain (due to imbalance b/w pain systems), hemianesthesia (knocked out DC-ML’s and STT’s), and sensory ataxia.
-balance in space depends on vestibular, visual, and somatosensory systems; if you take one of these away, get some sensory ataxia.
The Limbic system (there is a lot of info here, and my questions won’t cover all of it, but here are some of the high points)
1. T or F The limbic system is only involved in generation of powerful emotions such as fear, hate,
terror, and rage.
2. T or F The brain is concerned w/ integrating incoming visceral and sensory inputs to maintain
body homeostasis, with the primary directives for survival being processed by the limbic system: namely eating, reproduction and avoidance behaviors, and memory of novel events.
3. The ___________ holds our limbic system in check, allowing us to respond in appropriate ways.
4. T or F We have a set number of olfactory receptors at birth and cannot replace them once they have been damaged.
5. Axons of olf. receptors constitute the olfactory _______, and about 20 fiber bundles/side enter the skull through the _________ plate (part of ethmoid bone) and terminate in the olfactory ______.
6. _________ cells are the principal cells of the olf. bulb.
7. The olfactory tract is composed of axons from ________ cells which course along the frontal lobe and terminate in the ant. perforated substance and the pyriform portion of the _________ lobe.
8. T or F Olfactory tracts terminate near the contralateral uncus of the temporal lobe.
9. T or F Olfactory system does not go through the thalamus to reach the cortex.
10. Info from one olf. bulb is sent to the contralateral olf. bulb via the _______ ________ stria and the __________ commissure.
11. When the cribriform plate is fractured and allows leakage of CSF from the nose, it’s called?
12. T or F Since meningiomas arising in the floor of the ant. cranial fossa usually impinge on unilateral olfactory bulb/tract, it is important to test each nostril separately for anosmia.
13. Irritation of the lateral olf. area can occur if the temporal cortex is compressed against the free edge of the tentorium cerebelli b/c of increased intracranial pressure. This compression can lead to epileptic discharges called ________ _____ characterized by olf. hallucinations (such as smelling burning rubber) and involuntary movements of the lips and tongue.
14. The limbic system is composed of the limbic lobe (cingulate and parahippocampal gyri), entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, amygdala, septal region, mamillary bodies, and anterior and dorsomedial thalamic nuclei.
15. The hippocampus occupies the floor of the __________ horn of the lateral ventricle.
16. The hippocampus (Lt. sea horse) receives input from the __________ cortex, which receives input from the ________ gyrus, which receives input from the neocortex.
17. The hippocampus also receives info from the septal region via the diagonal ______ of ________.
18. The major outflow of the hippocampus is via a large fiber bundle termed the ________, which terminates mainly in a mammillary body. Other fornix fibers cross to the contralateral hippo or terminate in the septal region, thalamic nucleus, or hypothalamus.
19. The septal region receives input from the amygdala via the _____ ________ and _______ _____. It also receives info from the hippocampus via the _______.
20. The septal region has widespread output to the cortex. It also goes to the hypothalamus and brainstem via the _______ _________ bundle; and to the habenular nuclei via the _____ _______.
21. Mammillary bodies are w/in the ___________ and receive input from the ipsalateral _______.
22. The efferent info from the mam. bodies quickly splits…one part, the _______________ tract, ends in the thalamus in the anterior nucleus. The second part, the ________________ tract, projects to the brainstem.
23. The dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus receives a lot of info from the ___________.
24. The anterior and dorsomedial nuclei send efferent info to the ___________, _________ cortex, and the ________________ cortex.
25. The amygdala receives a lot of info of sensory nature, some relayed via the thalamic relay, but also a lot of info from the entorhinal cortex, hippocampus, hypothal, septum, brainstem, and limbic lobe. The major reciprocal pathway to and from the amygdala is the _____ _________ which connects the amygdala w/ the septal region and hypothalamus.
26. The amygdala is an integrative center of _________ and _________ functions. It also integrates emotional expression with ____________ behavior via its connections w/ the cerebral cortex.
27. The habenular nuclei are involved in integrating info from the septal and rostral hypothalamic areas that are concerned w/ ______________. Animals w/ breeding seasons use this to be sexually receptive at proper times.
28. The habenular nuclei receives info from the septal area via the ______ __________, and it projects to numerous brainstem regions, especially the interpeduncular nucleus.
29. The brainstem receives descending limbic info mainly via the _______ _______ bundle, ______ ___________ fasciculus, and the ________________ tract.
30. The targets of these descending fibers are involved w/ regulation of _________ functions, so the organism can evoke the “emotional” response organized by the _______ system.
***Our cortically generated “emotions” are processed by the limbic system and then sent to the hypothalamus and habenular nuclei to be “transformed” into visceral and somatic responses via hormones and neuronal linkages, such as the medial forebrain bundle.
31. The Papez Circuit: Begins in the hippocampus and proceeds via the fornix to the __________
body. From there, it travels via the ________________ projection to the _________ thalamic nucleus, which sends the info to the __________ cortex. The cingulated cortex (which receives neocortical input) sends the info on to the _____________ (or entorhinal) cortex, which then feeds it back to the hippocampus. Still serves as a good reminder of how the neocortex can elicit visceral and somatic responses via the limbic system. Today, it is also evident that the dorsomedial thalamic nuclei, along with its reciprocal connections with the ________ lobes, plays an important part in the circuit.
32. The hippocampus enables _______ term memory to be converted into ______ term memory if it is
important. Bilateral lesions of large areas of hippocampus yields impairment of recent events memory, w/ remote events unimpaired.
33. T or F Emotions are included in memories.
34. T or F Emotion adds significance to memory, as in one-trial learning (animal gets sick after eating a food).
35. Korsokoff’s syndrome (amnestic confabulatory syndrome) arises from a ________ (B1 in syllabus, but I think it should be B12) deficiency associated w/ chronic __________. Lesions involve mam bodies, hippocampus, and dorsomedial thalamic nuclei. Can form no new memories, so they make up stories to make up for loss.
36. Kluver-Bucy syndrome results from bilateral lesions to the __________ lobe which include the amygdala, hippocampus, and parahippocampal gyrus. Symptoms include: loss of emotional responses of fear, rage, and aggression; being overly attentive to all sensory stimuli; hypersexuality; and psychic blindness where objects can’t be recognized visually.
37. Stimulation of the __________ causes fear, anxiety, and eating behavior.
38. Stimulation of various regions of the __________ or __________ cortex causes visceral and endocrine changes with are involved in the flight or fight response
39. Stimulation of the _____________ cortex will evoke olfactory hallucinations.
40. There are regions in the septal area and rostral hypothalamus that are described as _________ centers.
Additional notes:
-psychosurgery: for incapacitating pain, anxiety, and anti-social behavior…tamed people, but also took away their emotional responses…eliminated in the mid 70’s.
-psychopharmacology: giving many diff. drugs to affect the limbic system…lots of side effects which cause people not to take them
Hypothalamus, the “head ganglion of the ANS”
1. Hypothalamus is very important in regulating thermoregulation, HR, BP, GI activity, piloerection,
water metabolism (drinking), general metabolism (feeding), bladder contraction, and sexual behavior. Also important in elaboration of emotional responses (anger, rage, aggression).
2. The hypothalamus is one of the major efferent outflows for the ________ system.
3. Stimulation of sites in the anterior and medial hypothalamic areas evoke ____________ responses.
4. Stimulation of sites in the posterior and lateral regions evoke ____________ responses.
5. These regions project to regions of the brainstem that control ___________ functions or areas that contain pregang. parasymp. neurons associated w/ CN’s __, __, __, and __.
6. The dorsal longitudinal fasciculus and reticulospinal tracts carry info from the hypothalamus to the _____________ cell column (T1-L2) and _____________nuclei (S2-4_
7. The hypothalamus receives imp. info via both ________ _____ tracts and through ________ factors conveyed in the bloodstream.
8. The __________ pituitary is an extension of the hypothalamus, whereas the ___________ pituitary is regulated by releasing or inhibiting factors made in the hypothal. and released into the hypophyseal portal system.
9. The ________ border of the hypothalamus is made by the lamina terminalis b/w the ant. commissure and the optic chiasma.
10. The posterior border of the hypothalamus is made by the posterior edge of the __________ body.
11. The ________ border is made by the sulcus limitans.
12. The ________ border is the fibers of the subthalamus and optic tracts.
13. The ventral border is the ___________ space.
14. T or F There are 3 regions of the hypothalamus, each w/ a medial and lateral portion
15. An imaginary sagittal line is drawn from the _______ to the ___________ bodies to divide medial from lateral regions.
16. The blood supply to the hypothalamus arises from penetrating branches that arise from the ______ of ______. The hypophyseal portal system begins w/ the superior hypophyeal art’s (branch of the ________ ________artery) that divide into cap. loops in the _______ eminance.
17. The anterior and medial regions of hypothal. mediate ____________ functions; whereas the posterior and lateral regions mediate __________ functions. The ant. hypo also controls many aspects of __________ _________.
18. The anterior hypothal. and preoptic area control ____________ function. Lesions of these regions may result in _____________.
19. The anterior aspects of the hypothal., esp. the _______ and ___________ nuclei, produce releasing and inhibiting factors (CRF, GHRF, TRF, SIRF, dopamine (PIH)) that control hormone release from ant. pituitary.
20. The arcuate nucleus, suprachiasmatic nucleus, and preoptic area of hypothal. are esp. involved in regulation of ________ functions. This ant. aspect of hypothal. times the release of gonadotropic homones.
21. The ______________ nucleus has direct connections with the retina and plays a mojor role in __________ rhythm of many hypothal. systems (daily temp. fluctuations, sleep-wake cycle,etc.)
22. It is thought that there are several nuclei in the ________ area that diff. in size b/w males and females, due to diff’s in number of large neurons.
23. T or F The posterior hypothalamus acts as the thermostat of the body to maintain temp’s.
24. T or F The posterior hypothalamus is stimulated by cold, so it decreases sweating, shivers, etc.
25. If the AH/POA and PH are destroyed, condition known as ____________ occurs, where body T tends to follow that of the env.
26. Lesions of the _________ nuclei produce hyperphagia (big hunger); whereas destruction of the dorsomedial hypothalamus or midlateral hypothalamus cause _________ (no hunger).
27. Stimulation of the VMH (ventromedial hypothalamus) elicits ___________; stim. of the DLH elicits _____________.
28. Both the SON (supraoptic) and PVN (paraventricular) nuclei are imp. in control of fluid balance and blood pressure via secretion of ____________, also called _____.
29. ADH is transported to _______ lobe of pituitary via the _____________________ tract. If these regions are destroyed, get polyuria and polydipsia (diabetes insipidus: 18-25 L urine/day).
30. ADH is primarily produced in the ____________, whereas oxytocin is primarily produced in the ______________.
31. Oxytocin stim’s ________ _________ in the myometrium and myoepithelial cells.
32. The fornix connects the ___________ formation and _______ with the VMH nucleus and the __________ bodies.
33. The amygdaloid complex is connected to the region of the olfactory tubercles w/ the medial preoptic area, bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, AH, arcuate nucleus and VMH via the _________ ___________.
34. The _________ __________ _________ (MFB) serves as the “internal capsule” of the limbic system. The MFB interconnects the olf. cortical regions, periamygdaloid area, and septal area with the lat. preoptic area, mam. bodies, lat. hypothal. area, and the VMH.
35. The mammillary peduncle connects the __________ __________ and reticular form. to the __________ bodies and other hypothalamic areas. This tract brings afferent impulses from the sensory inputs to the PH area, an area central to the mediation of somnolence.
36. The retina has direct input to the _________________ nuclei via the ________ tract.
(Questions 32-36 dealt w/ afferent pathways to hypothalamus, 37-41 deal w/ efferent pathways)
37. The ________ ________ ______ (MFB, bi-directional) contains efferents from the lateral
hypothalamus and preoptic area that terminate in the hippocampal form., septum, cerebral cortex, and spinal cord.
38. The mamillothalamic tract connects the ____________ bodies to the ant. thal. nuclei and
subsequently to the cortex.
39. The ______________ tract connects the mammillary bodies w/ the locus coeruleus, midbrain
raphe, parabrachial nucleus and the reticular formation.
40. The hypothalamus is connected to the brainstem and autonomic and somatic motoneurons of the
SC via a bi-directional pathway known as the _________ ___________ _________.
41. The hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system is a neurovascular-endocrine “efferent” of the
hypothalamus that carries hypothalamic releasing hormones that act on ant. pituitary.
42. The hypothalamus works with the limbic system by sending neural info downstream to the
___________ and _______ ______, and by sending hormones into the circ. system to give visceral and somatic responses to sensory inputs.
43. T or F Hypothalamic diseases may be due to surgical trauma, injury, degenerative processes, inflam. lesions, or tumors.
44. Amenorrhea may be due to insufficient _______ or ______ release. The main hypothalamic structures that may be affected include the AH/POA, tuberal hypothal., or pituitary.
45. ___________ (excessive milk production w/out nursing and w/out the appropriate concurrent secretion of FSH and LH). Involves prolactin and oxytocin, and involves the structures w/in the arcuate nucleus, the AH/POA, median eminance, or pit. stalk.
46. ____________ (dysregulation in temp. regulation) results from damage to AH/POA and/or PH. Lesions of the AH/POA alone don’t give this condition, but lesions of the PH do b/c they destroy efferents from the AH/POA as well.
47. Diabetes insipidus is characterized by __________ and _________. Occurs as a result of diminished AVP, better known as ___________, or ____. Normally a result of damage to the supraoptic nuc, paraventricular nuc, or pit. stalk. Synthetic d-arginine vasopressin used to fix.
48. Tumors of the pituitary often give this visual sign: _____________ _____________.
49. Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of ______ after maturity and characterized by abnormally large nose, jaw, finger, toes. May be caused by adenohypophyseal lesions or damage w/in the arcuate nucleus or paraventricular region of the hypothalamus. Headache and vision probs also common w/ condition.
50. _____________ disease is associated w/ hyperadrenocorticism mediated by excessive ACTH production, likely due to pit. tumor (although paraventricular nucleus damage may also be a critical structure). Symptoms: absense of diurnal variation in cortisol levels, protein depletion, adiposity of face, neck, and trunk, kyphosis due to softening spine, amenorrhea, hypertrichosis, impotence, dusky complexion w/ purple markings, hypertension, polycythemia, pain in abd. and back, and muscular weakness.